The first chapter of Western music history begins with Ancient Greek music and Roman traditions. From the 600 BC – AD 400, very few musical works have survived, yet the philosophical reflections, instrumental culture, and a handful of precious fragments reveal how deeply music shaped thought and life. In this world, where music was believed to symbolize education, ethics, and even the order of the cosmos, the intellectual foundation of Western music was laid.
1. Ancient Greek Music and Philosophy
Greek philosophers saw a deep connection between Ancient Greek music and mathematics. Pythagoras (c. 570–495 BC) discovered that the length of a string and the ratio of intervals produced numerical harmony, proving that sound was governed by order rather than chance. From this came the enduring belief that “music reflects the order of the cosmos.”
Plato (427–347 BC), in The Republic, described Ancient Greek music as a moral force shaping the soul and character of a person. Aristotle (384–322 BC) added that music not only brings pleasure but also provides catharsis, a cleansing of emotions. For both thinkers, music was more than art—it was a principle guiding human life and society.
Aristoxenus (c. 375–300 BC), a student of Aristotle, built one of the earliest systems of Ancient Greek music theory. He explained harmony and scales while insisting that music must be grasped through listening, not numbers alone. In this view, music stood between abstract ratios and sensory experience, finding balance in both.
2. Ancient Greek Music in Daily Life and Rituals
For the ancient Greeks, music was woven into every part of life—daily routines, sacred rituals, theater, and even athletic competitions. At great festivals like the Olympic Games, poetry and music rose together, not just for entertainment but as offerings to the gods. In the theater, choruses and instrumental accompaniment guided the unfolding of the play and stirred the emotions of the audience.
In myth, Orpheus could cross the boundary between life and death with his song and lyre, while Apollo was revered as the god of music and harmony. These stories reveal that music was more than art—it was seen as sacred power, a bridge between gods and the world, and a force that shaped the spiritual foundation of the community.
3. Instruments and Performance Culture in Ancient Greece
In both Greece and Rome, music permeated daily life, sacred ceremonies, theater, and public festivals. Instruments were not just tools for making sound—they held symbolic meaning, representing ideas of culture, order, and emotion.
Image Sources
All instrument images are from the Public Domain or museum Open Access collections.
Lyre (Lyra): The Metropolitan Museum of Art – Terracotta statuette of Eros playing a lyre (17.230.46)
Kithara:
· The Metropolitan Museum of Art – Boscoreale Villa Wall Painting (03.14.5)
· Musée du Louvre – Muse tuning two kitharai (CA 482)
Aulos:
· Musée du Louvre – Aulos player on kylix (G 313)
· Musée du Louvre – Satyr playing aulos on skyphos (MNE 987)
Lyre (Lyra)
The lyre was the iconic string instrument of Ancient Greek music, seen as a symbol of education and culture. Linked to the myths of Apollo and Orpheus, it embodied order and harmony. Within the world of Ancient Greek music, its pure, gentle sound often accompanied poetry, and it was valued as a tool for nurturing refinement and moral character.
Kithara
The kithara was the professional string instrument of ancient Greece, larger and more resonant than the lyre. It was featured in poetry recitals, public ceremonies, and music contests, and, as the instrument of Apollo, it carried the authority and prestige of music. Wall paintings from the late classical period vividly illustrate how highly regarded this instrument was in Greek society.
Aulos
The aulos was a striking double-reed instrument, played by blowing into two pipes at once. Its raw, intense tone rang out in festivals and on the stage, strongly linked with the cult of Dionysus. If the lyre and kithara stood for harmony and refinement, the aulos embodied passion and the release of emotion.
4. Surviving Works and Notation – The Song of Seikilos
Ancient Greek music was partially recorded using alphabetic notation. However, very few pieces have survived intact to this day. The best-known among them is The Song of Seikilos. It was inscribed on a stele discovered near Tralles (today’s Aydın, Türkiye) in the AD 100–200, and is now kept at the National Museum of Denmark in Copenhagen.
As the oldest surviving complete musical score, this short monophonic line makes vivid the idea of writing sound with letters, a need that later flowed into the medieval notation tradition. Its text consoles life after loss and says, “Live with a bright heart while you live.”
In addition, a choral fragment from the tragedy Orestes by Euripides (c. 480?–406 BC) survives in notated pieces. This fragment is valuable evidence that music functioned as a core element of tragic performance.
Image credit: National Museum of Denmark. “The Seikilos Stele.” World History Encyclopedia. April 16, 2015. https://www.worldhistory.org/image/3806/the-seikilos-stele/
. (Accessed Aug 21, 2025)
The song consists of two parts. First comes an introductory inscription: “I am an image and a stone; Seikilos placed me here so that memory might endure forever.” Then, above the four lines of the main text, small alphabetic signs mark the vocal melody. On some syllables, linear marks (—, ⏗) and dots (stigmai) indicate duration and upward motion. Because this record predates any standardized performance practice, range, tempo, and accompaniment admit a degree of discretion.
Text (sense translation)
“While you live, keep your heart bright.
Do not be seized by grief.
Life is short, and time exacts its due.”
Seikilos (Seikílos, active AD 100–200)
“The name that carved his song and memory into stone, author of The Song of Seikilos”
- Nationality: Greek (from Tralles in Asia Minor)
- Activity: AD 100–200; known only from the inscription
- Features: Left the only complete piece whose melody is written in alphabetic notation
5. Music in Ancient Rome
Rome inherited much from Greece but focused on practical use—military music, theater, and banquets. Trumpet-like instruments such as the buccina and cornu signaled commands in war and processions and also displayed the power of the legions. In amphitheaters and arenas, music formed part of popular entertainment, and at aristocratic banquets it signaled luxury and status.
As a result, Rome had little concept of a modern “composer” or “musical work.” Music was transmitted mainly through social function rather than individual creation, so records are fragmentary. Rome did not leave a rich original repertoire, but it played a crucial role in spreading Greek music across Europe.
Conclusion
Ancient Greece and Rome were the periods in which music took deep root in philosophy, mathematics, society, and daily life. What survives is fragmentary, yet the ideas and early attempts at notation became the soil from which medieval music later flourished. The belief that Ancient Greek music embodies harmony and order remained the first resonance running through the whole of Western music history.
Further Reading
Symphony Listening in the 19th Century | How People Enjoyed Music before Recordings